Existential Ethics

Morality and Existentialism

Scopes of Morality

One of the problems posed by morality in existentialism
is that morality must be understood in relation to the realm of a decision.
The scope of a moral decision refers to the number and types of individuals
affected by the decision. There are four primary scopes ranging from the
individual to the world’s population. Because morality is defined by generalizations
within a social group, morality changes as the scope increases to include
more individuals. Sometimes the additional people expand what is acceptable,
while the opposite can also be true.

1. Personal morality: How true are you to your values?
2. Regional or group morality: How true are you to the morals of your
   region or social group?
3. National morality: How true are you to the morals of your nation?
4. International morality: How true are you to the morals of this planet?

Personal Morality

Personal morality has no external guidelines. Personal
morality and authenticity form the core of existentialism. A person is
alone in determining what he or she would do without any external influences.
The test of personal morality is what one might do if no others would know.

The focus on personal morality is not unique to existentialism,
but it does separate it from most moral traditions. National and “Universal”
morality pose a problem for existentialists, since nations and even smaller
social groups make poor decisions. Personal freedom and choice determine
a course of action.

What do you do alone? What do you do when certain you
will not be detected?

Regional or Group Morality

Social regions and groups decide the bounds of regional
or group morality. Regions develop moralities based upon dominant religions,
resources, and lifestyles within these geographical areas. Between the
region and the individual morality exists various group moralities. These
moralities tend to embrace most of the regional system, but with conditions
— frequently relating to loyalty to the group.

During the American Civil War, the U.S. South had a different
morality than the North. This was a regional morality until the South formed
the Confederate States. At that moment, one could argue two national moralities
were in conflict. It can and should be argued the issue of survival was
also considered, as the South was economically threatened by industrialization
in the North.

National Morality

Legal systems often illustrate national morality. When
wondering what a nation considers moral, consider the form of government
and the legal system of the nation. What constitutes a criminal act within
a nation exemplifies the morality of the population, assuming the country
is not an unpopular dictatorship.

International Morality

International morality shifts constantly, making it difficult
to document. Every nation and religion differs on what constitutes moral
acts. The United Nations and the World Court are attempts to define international
morality.

Existential Values

Are there underlying values common to existentialists?
Is there an ethical system, or at least a common foundation for the various
values expressed by existentialists? These are the questions posed frequently
by students searching for the unifying themes in existential works. Accepting
life is a series of choices always resulting in anxiety or despair, the
existentialists appear to have no reason for moral behavior as determined
by society.

The existentialists for their part have very little to say about the
methods whereby value judgments may properly be established, and at times
one has the impression that they, too, are dubious about the possibility
of establishing value judgments as objective or universal truths. Heidegger and Sartre have gone so far as to say that they make no value judgments, even though such terms as “authenticity” and “inauthenticity” constantly recur in their writings. These terms, they say, are being used descriptively, not evaluatively. No one, however, has been deceived. Almost to a man, interpreters of Sartre and Heidegger have pointed to these declarations as instances of bad faith.
– An Introduction to Existentialism; Olson, p. 26

Existentialism does have an ethical foundation, however;
the difficulty lies in recognizing it. To recognize the foundations of
existential ethics, one must recognize the “truths” behind the philosophy.
The basis for most philosophical schools is a set of “universal truths”
agreed upon by the proponents of the philosophy. The school can be simple,
having just one rule: “There are no universal truths.” Of course, that
rule is then a universal truth and a paradox. Existentialism’s basis is
a simple set of truths relating to sentient life, as discussed in the opening
paragraphs of this document:

• First, sentient beings exist, then they spend a lifetime defining an
  individual essence;
• All sentient life forms, namely humans, have free will;
• Every action, expression, or thought is the result of a decision;
• Decision making is a stressful, solitary act, even when part of a group;
  and
• Any decision can and usually does have negative aspects.

These “truths” form the foundation of existentialism.
Existential values are those values recognizing the importance of free
will, the anxiety experienced by others, and the potential consequences
of decisions upon other beings, sentient and not. The foundations of any
ethical system employed by existentialists can be reduced to the following
statements:

1. Existentialism requires constant thought, expression, and action —
   the active development of one’s essence.
2. All decisions are individual, with each being responsible for his or
   her choices.
3. The most important decisions are those affecting the free will of other
   individuals, other matters are less important.
4. Some may be affected negatively, their choices reduced by a decision,
   so decisions must promote freedom among the greatest number of beings.
5. Limiting the number of options available to an individual in any situation
   reduces that being’s freedom to express a free will.
6. There is no such thing as a demand, since one can always accept death
   as a choice.

Notice the emphasis is upon freedom and free will. How
existentialists understand freedom varies, so the implementation of these
principles also varies. For example, Sartre viewed Soviet Communism as allowing men to be free from the basic pursuit of needs, such as food and shelter. Anarchists or democrats would argue the freedom to make mistakes and suffer is more important than a freedom from suffering. The implementation of existential ethics therefore depends upon one’s understanding of freedom, yet all existentialists have the same goal: beings must be free or they lack the essence of being.

1. Think, Express, & Act

Existentialism is an active philosophy, based upon the
quest for individual authenticity. As in most religions, perfect authenticity
is not attainable, but it is the goal of existentialists. It is the pursuit
of authenticity that matters most. One establishes authentic beliefs via
discourse and debate. Then, one affirms beliefs through expressions and
actions. If one has an opinion or thought, it is to be expressed. If the
thought requires action, then action must be taken.

Faith offers an excellent example of existential action.
If one has faith, they must act accordingly. Kierkegaard and Sartre both promoted this ideal, despite their differences in faith. Sartre believed if one claimed to be an atheist, a Catholic, or a Jew, then that individual was obligated to practice the teachings of that faith. Kierkegaard’s beliefs were the basis for his critiques of the church. An existentialists is not a passive believer or non-believer; action is required.

The individual worthy of respect is active, defining
an essence through his or her actions. A coward, a passive being, is least
worthy of respect. It might be stated an existentialist debates even the
most minor of issues. Because every thought contributes to defining one’s
essence, every opinion is part of the greater essence. Camus and Sartre even debated how to best be active pacifists — though World War II illustrated neither man was a pacifist.

2. Personal Responsibility

Taking action requires accepting the consequences of
that act. Personal responsibility is a basic principle in existentialism.
An individual’s decisions belong exclusively to that being — no matter
the external circumstances. It is not ethical to avoid consequences. Existentialists
accept risks, knowing some actions can result in personal suffering.

What would a captured member of the French resistance
say when interrogated? If truth is all important and personal responsibility
a mandate of existentialism, how would a captured Sartre or Camus handle questions? By stating, “I am a member of the resistance. I will not compromise others.” There is no lie, responsibility is accepted, and others are not harmed. Of course, an existentialist might not make a very good spy — deception is not part of the general philosophy.

War offers extremes for philosophical debate, so one
must consider “every day” life when discussing existentialism. Children
quickly learn to avoid responsibility and blame; they learn to lie to protect
the self. Existentialism requires one accept negative as well as positive
consequences, which does not appear to be a natural tendency among humans.
Even minor matters, such as trying to avoid a traffic ticket, run counter
to existential ethics.

Accepting a ticket, however, if far different from obeying
the law. An existentialists is free to disregard a law, as long as the
consequences are accepted. Many existentialists practiced civil disobedience,
especially during the 1960s. Recall that action is to be respected, while
passivity is rejected by existentialists as cowardly.

3. Importance, Scope

If it were possible to live alone on an island, with
no contact with other beings, your decisions would have less value, according
to some existentialists. Such a situation would be known as minimal
scope — the scope of any decision is limited to one being. The importance of a decision is directly proportional to the number of beings affected. Using this measure, some existentialists feel it is acceptable to avoid some debates while actively participating in other conflicts with a greater scope. This does not mean existentialists do not express opinions on almost every matter — but it is impossible to be actively engaged in every conflict affecting personal freedom.

Though many existentialists reject the idea of politically
superior individuals, it is obvious leaders in a society or even within
a company affect more individuals with decisions than do others. As one
rises in a social structure, their actions take on more importance. Even
fame, desired or not, results in a greater influence upon others. Existentialists
believe decisions must be considered in relation to this influence. Some
existentialists turn from influence, arguing the core of existentialism
is personal responsibility. Others use influence to expand discussion and
debate.

Modern communication technologies, such as the Internet
and World Wide Web, have made it much easier for individuals to express
opinions to millions of others. Along with such power comes the obligation
to serve as many people as possible, according to existentialism. One is
no longer limited to a small community; influence is global. This makes
the decision how to utilize technology increasingly important.

4. Good (Freedom) of the Many

Existentialists actively promote the freedom of individuals.
Freedom, the right to exercise free will, is a universal truth in existential
philosophy. An existentialist hopes to express ideas and engage in actions
likely to promote or protect the freedom of others. The problem confronting
existentialists is the realization most decisions have a negative effect
upon some individuals. Affecting any negative effect runs counter to the
goals of existentialists, but it is inescapable.

Since a decision’s importance relates to the number of
individuals affected, the measure of “right” or “wrong” depends upon the
number of people adversely affected. Existentialists do not generally view
decisions as “right” — a good decision merely minimizes any impingement
upon the freedom of others. Because there is only a relative goodness to
any decision, no “black and white” situations exist. An existentialist
is likely to consider a situation in depth, possibly analyzing the situation
too much.

The question one must ask before making a decision is
how many individuals might experience reduced freedom as a result? The
alternative selected must protect the greatest number of people. Remember
the last principle explored: a decision’s importance relates to the number
of individuals affected. Importance does not refer to a greater potential
for good.

5. Few Restrictions

Social structures, by nature, limit personal freedoms.
Existentialists prefer situations that allow the greatest amount of personal
choice, but they recognize some compromises are necessary. In terms of
ethical standards, this is reflected by existentialists fighting laws and
moral edicts they view as restrictive. Also, existentialists seek to allow
as much freedom to individuals as possible, without leading to the downfall
of society.

Restrictions of freedom are not tolerated by existentialists
— they are obliged to speak and act against such limits. To be an authentic
existentialist one must actively fight for freedom. Existentialism is marked
by the desire for greater freedom, though one might not wish to exercise
these freedoms. As a result, an existentialist tends to defend the rights
of others, even when not personally affected.

6. The Ultimate Free Will

According to existentialism, the ultimate choice is death.
Usually death is an absurd choice, existentialism recognizes, but sometimes
it might be the only ethical choice. An existentialist would be willing
to make the “ultimate sacrifice” if doing so would protect the existence
and freedom of many others.

Faith & Existentialism

Existentialism is not a singular school of thought, devoid
of any and all forms of faith. It helps to understand that many of those
influencing existentialism were religious. Blaise
Pascal, whose writings influenced existentialism, and Kierkegaard were dedicated Christians. Pascal was a Catholic who died in a monastery. Kierkegaard a radical Protestant, a supporter of Martin Luther’s teachings.

Nietzsche, despite the famous “God is dead” quote, also appears to have been a believer in a Creator, though he despised organized religion as a manipulative tool to control the masses. He often insulted the Church merely to cause a stir. Some, notably Walter Kaufmann, call Nietzsche the “anti-Christian” existentialist, because he believed the organized Christian churches were the most destructive influences of his time. For clarification, Nietzsche did write that the Creator had no influence on humanity… kind of like a parent who has let His children go their own way. Nietzsche did not worry about Heaven, Hell, or human souls.

Dostoevsky was Russian-Orthodox, to the point of being fanatical. He was as religious as any ordained writer, though his own moral failings are near-legendary. (If we believe some biographers, that is.) Kafka was Jewish, so he cannot be considered secular, either. His family was not as religious as Kafka himself might have liked, but when you take into consideration that his family died in concentration camps, it is obvious why his father might not have been very public with his faith. Hegel, the German idealist from whose theories many existentialists drew, was very religious — writing that all authority must be derived from the Creator. Hegel’s entire system of ethics was based upon the existence of a Supreme Creator and this Creator’s will. In fact, Hegel believed no ruler obtained power without the consent of this Creator.

We are then left with Camus and Sartre, and of these two only Sartre can be seen to consistently deny any and all belief in a divine force. Sartre was raised with exposure to religion, but World War II and the constant suffering of the world drove him away from faith, according to several biographers, including his lover, Simone de Beauvoir. Curiously, Sartre spent the last years of his life exploring issues of faith and dedication with an orthodox Jew. One can only guess as to their conversations, as Sartre did not see fit to record them.

There are specific existentialists known for their acceptance
of faith and its role in philosophy. The Christian Existentialists are
a specific group of men, primarily European-born, who lived from 1600 through
the mid 1900s. These men tended to be Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran,
or Anglican. Most of these men had monastic experiences, or experienced
similar religious indoctrination.

European religion, to this day, tends to be very traditional
— were it still survives. (Fewer Europeans claim to be religious and attend
religious ceremonies than Americans.) In the case of Pascal or Dostoevsky, their religious beliefs were truly fundamental, including a belief that the complete laws in Leviticus must be followed.

American Christianity is much more varied than Eastern
Orthodox or the Catholicism of the 1600s. European history is dominated
by the power of the Catholic Church and its siblings, the various Orthodox
Churches, such as the Greek, Armenian, and Russian. In these churches,
failure to receive rites is perceived as being refused salvation. Hence,
excommunication has long been a political weapon — at least until this
century.

For Christian existentialists, faith defends the individual
and guides decisions with a rigorous set of rules. As a
tenet of the faith, some Christians believe they will be persecuted for
their beliefs during a period of tribulation and cite Matthew 24, Mark
13 and Luke 21 as evidence of this. The Revelation to John, or Book of
Revelations, is also cited by many Christians as phrophecy their faith
will be tested.

For atheists,
the irony is that no matter how much you do to improve yourself and others,
you will still deteriorate and die. Many existentialists believe the greatest
victory of the individual is to realize the absurdity of life and to accept
it. In short, you live a miserable life, for which you may or may not be
rewarded by a greater force. If this force exists, why do men suffer? If
it does not exist, why not commit suicide and shorten your suffering? These
questions only hint at the complexity of existential thought.

The Individual Versus Society

Existentialists tend to depict life as a series of struggles
between the individual and everything. The individual is forced to make
decisions; often any choice is a bad choice. In the writings of some existentialists,
it seems that freedom and personal choice are the seeds of misery. The
curse of free will was of particular interest to the theological and Christian
existentialists. By giving man free will, the Creator was punishing mankind
in the worst possible way.

Societal structures are the result of men and women attempting
to limit their own choices. This theory works like a 12-step recovery program:
society exerts needed peer pressure to ease the decision-making process.
Accordingly, the more structured a society, the more functional it should
be. Adoption of this anthropological theory might explain why the existentialists
tended to favor authoritarian or rigid forms of government, such as communism,
socialism, and fascism. This possibility is discussed in more detail in
the section regarding the political
existentialists. Having one political party, one strong leader, one source of direction makes it easy to function.

Existentialists would explain why some people are attracted
to military careers based on the challenge of making decisions. Following
orders is easy; it requires little emotional effort to do as one is told.
If the order is not logical, it is not for the soldier to question. In
this way, wars can be explained, mass genocides understood. People were
only doing as they were told.

How can a philosophy that focuses upon the individual
embrace such anti-individual social theories? In effect, Sartre and Heidegger both believed that men freed from basic decisions, such as how to obtain food, shelter, and security, could concentrate on more important decisions. Heidegger, a supporter of Hitler, and Sartre, a supporter of the Soviet Union, both saw in authoritarian governments the promise of greater individual freedom to pursue the arts, science, et cetera. When utopia was achieved and people were doing what they did best, the individual would benefit and the society as a whole would benefit.